Computer Hardware and Fundamentals

Research Study

(Computer Hardware and Fundamentals)

Ralph Emerson G. Angeles

BSCpE12M1

Mr.Rodrigo Calapan

Table of Contents

I. Occupational Health & Safety Standards
II. Computer Fundamental
III. Computer Hardware
IV. Computer Software
V. Operating Systems
VI. Technical People
VII. Electricity & Power Supply
VIII. Parts Of the Computer

• Motherboard parts and functions 
• Hard Disk Drive parts and functions 
• Floppy Disk Drive parts and functions 
• USB Flash Drive parts and functions 
• Compact Disk parts and functions 
• Digital Versatile Disk 
• Blu-ray Disk 

IX. CMOS Manipulation
X. Beep Codes and Error Messages
XI. Network Cabling
XII. Computer Networking
XIII. Network Topology
XIV. Date/Resource Sharing
XV. Latest Gadgets

XVI. References

I.Occupational Health and Safety Standards



1. Remove your watch and other jewelry and secure loose clothing
2. Turn off the power and unplug the equipment before opening the case
3. Cover any sharp objects inside the system case with tape
4. Never open a monitor or a power supply
5. Do not touch areas in printer that are hot, or use high voltage
6. Know where the fire extinguisher is located and how to use it
7. Know where the first aid kit is located
8. Keep your foods and beverages out of your work space
9. Keep your work space clean and free form clutter
10. Bend your knees when lifting heavy object to avoid back injury


II. Computer Fundamental

Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and processes these data under the control of set of instructions(called program) and gives the result(output) and saves output for the future use. It can process both numerical and non-numerical(arithmetic and logical) calculations

III. Computer Hardware

Computer hardware equals the collection of physical elements that comprise a computer system. Computer hardware refers to the physical parts or components of a computer such as monitor, keyboard, Computer data storage, hard drive disk, mouse, printers, CPU (graphic cards, sound cards, memory, motherboard and chips), etc all of which are physical objects that you can actually touch. In contrast, software is untouchable. Software exists as ideas, application, concepts, and symbols, but it has no substance. A combination of hardware and software forms a usable computing system.

IV. Computer Software

Software includes all the various forms and roles that digitally stored data may have and play in a computer (or similar system), regardless of whether the data is used as code for a CPU, or other interpreter, or whether it represents other kinds of information. Software thus encompasses a wide array of products that may be developed using different techniques such as ordinary programming languages, scripting languages, microcode, or an FPGA configuration.


The types of software include web pages developed in languages and frameworks like HTML,PHP, Perl, JSP, ASP.NET, XML, and desktop applications like OpenOffice.org, Microsoft Word developed in languages like C, C++, Objective-C, Java, C#, or Small talk. Application software usually runs on an underlying software operating systems such as Linux or Microsoft Windows. Software (or firmware) is also used in video games and for the configurable parts of the logic systems of automobiles, televisions, and other consumer electronics.

Practical computer systems divide software systems into three major classes:system software, programming software and application software, although the distinction is arbitrary, and often blurred.


V. Operating Systems

An operating system (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer hardware resources and provides common services for computer programs. The operating system is a vital component of the system software in a computer system. Application programs usually require an operating system to function.


Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and may also include accounting for cost allocation of processor time, mass storage, printing, and other resources.


For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the operating system acts as an intermediary between programs and the computer hardware, although the application code is usually executed directly by the hardware and will frequently make a system call to an OS function or be interrupted by it. Operating systems can be found on almost any device that contains a computer—from cellular phones and video game consoles to supercomputers and web servers.


Examples of popular modern operating systems include Android, BSD, iOS, Linux, Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows, Windows Phone, and IBM z/OS. All these, except Windows and z/OS, share roots in UNIX.


Real-time


A real-time operating system is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing real-time applications. Real-time operating systems often use specialized scheduling algorithms so that they can achieve a deterministic nature of behavior. The main objective of real-time operating systems is their quick and predictable response to events. They have an event-driven or time-sharing design and often aspects of both. An event-driven system switches between tasks based on their priorities or external events while time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts.


Multi-user


A multi-user operating system allows multiple users to access a computer system at the same time. Time-sharing systems and Internet servers can be classified as multi-user systems as they enable multiple-user access to a computer through the sharing of time. Single-user operating systems have only one user but may allow multiple programs to run at the same time.


Multi-tasking vs. single-tasking


A multi-tasking operating system allows more than one program to be running at a time, from the point of view of human time scales. A single-tasking system has only one running program. Multi-tasking can be of two types: pre-emptive and co-operative. In pre-emptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates one slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems such as Solaris and Linux support pre-emptive multitasking, as does AmigaOS. Cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to give time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking. 32-bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used pre-emptive multi-tasking. Mac OS prior to OS X used to support cooperative multitasking.


Distributed


A distributed operating system manages a group of independent computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing. Distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a group work in cooperation, they make a distributed system.


Embedded


Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy. They are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design. Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems.


VI. Technical People


I have learned a few tricks from countless hours on technical support phone calls. The difference between a quick and helpful session and a painful and useless one is often as much a function of what you do as what the person at the other end of the line does. Try the following tips to increase your chances of success:


PC When You Call: Sometimes in a troubleshooting session, the technical support person may require some information that you don't have, or will want you to perform a test or procedure. You should therefore always be at the PC when you make the technical support call. If you try to call from somewhere else, you greatly limit the technician's ability to help you.
Control The Call: Be specific about what it is you want. Make sure that the conversation stays on that topic, and don't be distracted into idle chit-chat if possible.
Have Your System Information Ready: Prepare system information in advance that you are likely to be asked about, before you call. The kinds of information you would typically expect to be asked for are described here.
Be Patient: Remember that you may have been working on your specific problem for two days, but the other person is just hearing about it. It may take some time before he or she gets all the information from you is needed to assist you. (In fact, most good tech support people are very skilled at learning what they need to know about a problem surprisingly quickly.)
Be Polite: Even if you feel you have just bought the biggest piece of junk ever and you are extremely upset about it, the chances are very high that the person who picks up the phone really had nothing to do with it. It's fine to hold the technical support person accountable for the quality of his or her company's products, but it's another thing to vent your spleen on someone who is really in most cases genuinely trying to help. A phrase I sometimes use when I feel flustered is "I know this isn't your fault personally, but I'm very unhappy about this product / your company's action / <whatever>". This sort of tone will usually get a sympathetic response and someone who recognizes a reasonable person who is dissatisfied. Saying something like "I am fed up with you people" or "Your company stinks" will just get the person's back up, the person whom you need to help you. If they think you are just being a jerk, that gives them the subconscious justification to not be nearly as concerned if you are happy or not.
Explain the Problem Clearly and Fully: Be specific when describing the problem. The better you express yourself, the more the other person can help you. If you provide details about the problem instead of generalities like "it doesn't work", this saves the support person from having to drag these details out of you, and gets your problem fixed much more quickly.
Get the Support Person's Name and Number: It is useful to find out the name and phone extension of the person you are talking to. This way, if you have a problem that cannot be resolved in a single session, or if you need to call back with a follow-up call, you won't have to start explaining the situation over again. It's also very helpful in the event that you get accidentally disconnected. Ask at the beginning of the call--that way they won't think you're taking the information to "get them in trouble" for some reason. Note that many companies do not allow their technical support people to give out their name and number so this may not work.
Be Persistent If You Are Being Pushed Off: While most technical support people recognize how important their job is and how much what they do reflects on their company, there are always some bad apples out there. Sometimes you may get the definite impression that the person on the other end of the line is just trying to get rid of you. Some indications of this are a surly attitude, trying to blame the problem on totally unrelated hardware or software, or giving bogus instructions that will take a long time and probably will not result in any improvement. For example, some technicians think the solution to any problem related even remotely to Windows 95 is to re-install it. This may fix some problems, but telling you to do that without first exploring easier solutions is a sign of sheer laziness. Be persistent (but not impolite) in your attempts to get a reasonable solution to your predicament. Ask to speak to a manager if the person becomes difficult or abusive.

VII. Electric and Power Supply

A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to an electrical load. The term is most commonly applied to electric power converters that convert one form of electrical energy to another, though it may also refer to devices that convert another form of energy (mechanical, chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A regulated power supply is one that controls the output voltage or current to a specific value; the controlled value is held nearly constant despite variations in either load current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy source.


Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it consumes while performing that task, from an energy source. Depending on its design, a power supply may obtain energy from:


· Electrical energy transmission systems. Common examples of this include power supplies that convert AC line voltage to DC voltage.


· Energy storage devices such as batteries and fuel cells.


· Electromechanical systems such as generators and alternators.


· Solar power.


A power supply may be implemented as a discrete, stand-alone device or as an integral device that is hardwired to its load. Examples of the latter case include the low voltage DC power supplies that are part of desktop computers and consumer electronics devices.


Commonly specified power supply attributes include:


· The amount of voltage and current it can supply to its load.


· How stable its output voltage or current is under varying line and load conditions.


· How long it can supply energy without refueling or recharging (applies to power supplies that employ portable energy sources).


Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and flow of electric charge. Electricity gives a wide variety of well-known effects, such as lightning,static electricity, electromagnetic induction and the flow of electrical current. In addition, electricity permits the creation and reception of electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves.


In electricity, charges produce electromagnetic fields which act on other charges. Electricity occurs due to several types of physics:


· electric charge: a property of some subatomic particles, which determines their electromagnetic interactions. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields.


· electric current: a movement or flow of electrically charged particles, typically measured in amperes.


· electric field (see electrostatics): an especially simple type of electromagnetic field produced by an electric charge even when it is not moving (i.e., there is no electric current). The electric field produces a force on other charges in its vicinity. Moving charges additionally produce a magnetic field.


· electric potential: the capacity of an electric field to do work on an electric charge, typically measured in volts.


· electromagnets: electrical currents generate magnetic fields, and changing magnetic fields generate electrical currents


In electrical engineering, electricity is used for:


· electric power where electric current is used to energize equipment


· electronics which deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies.


Electrical phenomena have been studied since antiquity, though advances in the science were not made until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Practical applications for electricity however remained few, and it would not be until the late nineteenth century that engineers were able to put it to industrial and residential use. The rapid expansion in electrical technology at this time transformed industry and society. Electricity's extraordinary versatility as a means of providing energy means it can be put to an almost limitless set of applications which include transport, heating, lighting, communications, and computation. Electrical power is the backbone of modern industrial society.


VIII. Parts of the Computer

Motherboard parts and functions



Sound card






- is a device that handles data-to-audio and audio-to-data translations, enabling a computer to play sound on speakers or to record sound from an external device, like a microphone.




BIOS






- The initial function of the BIOS is to identify, test, and initialize system devices such as the video display card, hard disk, and floppy disk and other hardware. This is to prepare the machine into a known state, so that software stored on compatible media can be loaded, executed, and given control of the PC.




IDE, ATA and S-ATA Interface connectors

-Many interface standards have been created throughout the years, maybe too many for discussing about all of them. I will then talk about the ATA and the S-ATA only as the IDE is the same thing as the ATA,only the name has changed. Also I will be brief because it is more a hard drive topic than anything else.


ATA







interface is used to connect hard drives andoptic drives. You can attach 2 drives on the same ribbon, 1 master and the other slave,and it supports almost all modern hard drives storage capacities.

S-ATA






It is faster than the ATA and only 1 device can be attached to it. The wire is thinner than his predecessor and surely help at the cooling process inside the computer case.

Floppy Drive Connector






The floppy disk interface uses what is likely the strangest cable of all those in PCs today. It is similar to the standard IDE cable in that it is usually a flat, gray ribbon cable. It is unusual in terms of the number of connectors it has and how it is used to configure the setup of the floppy disks in the system.

Capacitors






- An electronic component that stores an electric charge and releases it when required. It comes in a huge variety of sizes and types for use in regulating power as was for conditioning, smoothing and isolating signals. Capacitors are made from many different materials, and virtually every electrical and electronic system uses them.

Processor

- A silicon chip that contains a CPU. In the world of personal computers, the terms

microprocessor

and CPU are used interchangeably. At the heart of all personal computers and most work stations sits a microprocessor.


Processor socket



- is an electrical component that attaches to a printed circuit board(PCB) and is designed to house a CPU(also called a microprocessor). It is a special type of integrated circuit socket designed for very high pin counts. A CPU socket provides many functions, including providing a physical structure to support the CPU, providing support for a heat sink, facilitating replacement (as well as reducing cost) and most importantly forming an electrical interface both with the CPU and the PCB. CPU sockets can most often be found in most desktop and server computers, particularly those based on the Intel x86 architecture on the motherboard.

Heat sink

- is an environment or object that absorbs and dissipates heat from another object using thermal contact(either direct or radiant). Heat sinks are used in a wide range of applications wherever efficient heat dissipation is required; major examples include refrigeration ,heat engines, cooling electronic devices and lasers.

PC memory slot

Commonly refers to the slot computer memory is placed into on the computer motherboard I/O Board. Term can also be used to describe PC card capable of storing data on the card. 

Power Connector

- is an electrical connector designed to carry a significant amount of electrical power, usually as DC or low-frequency AC.

AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port)

- is a high-speed point-to-point channel for attaching a video card to a computer's motherboard primarily to assist in the acceleration of 3D computer graphics

BACK PANNEL CONNECTOR Parallel Port

- is a type of interface found on computers for connecting various peripherals. It is also known as a printer port or Centronics port. The parallel interface was adapted to access a number of peripheral devices other than printers.

Serial Port

- is a serial communication physical interface through which information transfers in or out one bit at a time (contrast parallel port).Throughout most of the history of personal computers, data transfer through serial ports connected the computer to devices such as terminals and various peripherals.

PS/2 connector -

is used for connecting some keyboards and mice to a PC compatible computer system. Its name comes from the IBM Personal System/2 series of personal computers, with which it was introduced in 1987.

Network Adapter

-interfaces a computer to a network. The term "adapter" was popularized originally by Ethernet add- in cards for PCs.

USB Ports

-

These USB connectors let you attach everything from mice to printers to your computer quickly and easily.

Audio ports and video port -

Are electrical connectors for carrying an audio signal or video signal, either in an analog or digital format. Analog A/V connectors often use Shielded cable to inhibit RF interference and noise.

Microphone Connector

– used for connecting the microphone to the computer

Hard Disk Drive Parts & Functions

The hard disk platters are accessed for read and write operations using theread/write heads mounted on the top and bottom surfaces of each platter. Obviously, the read/write heads don't just float in space; they must be held in an exact position relative to the surfaces they are reading, and furthermore, they must be moved from track to track to allow access to the entire surface of the disk. The heads are mounted onto a structure that facilitates this process. Often called the head assembly or actuator assembly (or even the head-actuator assembly), it is comprised of several different parts.

The heads themselves are mounted on head sliders. The sliders are suspended over the surface of the disk at the ends of the head arms. The head arms are all mechanically fused into a single structure that is moved around the surface of the disk by the actuator. (Sort of like "the leg bone's connected to the knee bone", isn't it? :^) ) It would be an understatement to say that these components are neglected; heck, most people don't even know they exist! Yet they play an important role in the function and performance of the drive. In particular, advances in slider, arm and actuator design are critical to improving the seek time of a hard disk; the impact that the actuator has on performance is discussed in this section.

Head Sliders: 

Hard disk read/write heads are too small to be used without attaching them to a larger unit. This is especially true of modern hard disk heads. Each hard disk head is therefore mounted to a special device called a head slider or just slider for short. The function of the slider is to physically support the head and hold it in the correct position relative to the platter as the head floats over its surface.
Sliders are given a special shape to allow them to ride precisely over the platter. Usually they are shaped somewhat like a sled; there are two rails or runners on the outside that support the slider at the correct flying height over the surface of the disk, and in the middle the read/write head itself is mounted, possibly on another rail.
As hard disk read/write heads have been shrinking in size, so have the sliders that carry them. The main advantage of using small sliders is that it reduces the weight that must be yanked around the surface of the platters, improving both positioning speed and accuracy. Smaller sliders also have less surface area to potentially contact the surface of the disk.

Head Arms:

The head arms are thin pieces of metal, usually triangular in shape onto which the head sliders (carrying the read/write heads) are mounted. In a way, the idea here is similar to how the arm of a phonograph is used to move the stylus from the outside of a record to the inside (although of course the similarity ends there). There is one arm per read/write head, and all of them are lined up and mounted to the head actuator to form a single unit. This means that when the actuator moves, all of the heads move together in a synchronized fashion. Heads cannot be individually sent to different track numbers.

The arms themselves are made of a lightweight, thin material, to allow them to be moved rapidly from the inner to outer parts of the drive. Newer designs have replaced solid arms with structural shapes in order to reduce weight and improve performance. This is the same technique used to reduce weight in the construction of airplane wings, for example. Newer drives achieve faster seek times in part by using faster and smarter actuators and lighter, more rigid head arms, allowing the time to switch between tracks to be reduced.
A recent trend in the hard disk industry has been the reduction in the number of platters in various drive families. Even some "flagship" drives in various families now only have three or even two platters, where four or five was commonplace a year or so ago. One reason for this trend is that having a large number of head arms makes it difficult to make the drive with high enough precision to permit very fast positioning (on random seeks). This is due to increased weight in the actuator assembly from the extra arms, and also problems aligning all the heads. So in essence, this is a trade off that some drive manufacturers are making to improve performance at the expense of capacity. With drive densities now at 20 GB per platter and bound to increase, this is an acceptable design decision for most buyers.

Head Actuator :
The actuator is the device used to position the head arms to different tracks on the surface of the platter (actually, to different cylinders, since all head arms are moved as a synchronous unit, so each arm moves to the same track number of its respective surface). The actuator is a very important part of the hard disk, because changing from track to track is the only operation on the hard disk that requires active movement: changing heads is an electronic function, and changing sectors involves waiting for the right sector number to spin around and come under the head (passive movement). Changing tracks means the heads must be shifted, and so making sure this movement can be done quickly and accurately is of paramount importance. This is especially so because physical motion is so slow compared to anything electronic--typically a factor of 1,000 times slower or more.

Floppy Disk Drive Parts and Functions

Drive Motor

·         The drive motor is a mechanism designed to spin the hub, or the center of the floppy disk. Once the disk starts to spin, data is recorded onto different parts of the magnetic disk.

Stepper Motor

·         This device is attached to the read/write heads on the disk. It is responsible for locating the exact position on the floppy disk on which to read, record or erase data. The stepper motor spins the disk to this exact location before any data is erased or recorded.

Mechanical Frame

·         The little levers that comprise a floppy drive's mechanical frame are designed to expose the magnetic part of a floppy disk by pulling its protective shutter to the side while the disk spins around and records data.

Circuit Board

·         This controls the read/write/erase heads and stepper motor of a floppy drive. It exchanges signals with the computer's main circuit board and based on these signals, determines where on a floppy disk information should be read, stored or erased

USB Flash Drive Parts and Functions

USB Connector

·         The USB connector is the small, silver extension that extends from the main USB device. The connector is what inserts into the USB port of the computer. Because this part of the USB flash drive is easily damaged, newer USB flash drives come with a switch that pulls the connector into the main compartment. This avoids the problem of the connector melting, accumulating dust or being crushed. The USB connector inserts into any USB port in a computer, or the user can insert it into a hub for devices on a machine.

Memory Chip

·         The flash memory chip, a black chip placed on the main circuit board of the USB drive, is what stores the information. This chip is protected by an outer case. These cases are sometimes clear, so the user can see the flash memory chip on the USB drive's circuit board. The flash memory chip contains different amounts of memory, depending on the device purchased. Flash drives started with a capacity of a few megabytes, but they continue to increase in capacity. Flash drives can hold gigabytes of information of flash memory chips.

LED and Crystal Oscillator

·         USB flash drives contain light-emitting diodes (LEDs). LEDs are lighted components that indicate processing or connection for the user. A green LED is used to mean "Ready." It indicates that the USB drive is connected and ready to save information. Some flash drives have a red LED light to indicate that an issue exists with the connection. A crystal oscillator is a small component on the flash drive's circuit board that sends a frequency signal. These oscillators are used in watches and other devices that keep time. Oscillators are used to control the output of the flash drive.

Compact Disk Parts and Functions

Mirror band
This is the ring area just inside of the main print area. The mirror band is not encoded with data so it has a different reflective quality, appearing darker than any other part of the compact disc. Generally the mirror band is etched with the name of the manufacturer, as well as a number or barcode identification associated with the client audio master. The effect of printing on the mirror band is a darkening of the text or images as compared to that of the main print area. Just inside of the mirror band is the stacking ring.

Stacking ring
On the underside of each disc, this thin ring of raised plastic is used to keep a small amount of space between each disc when stacked up for boxing and/or shipping. It prevents the flat surfaces from scraping against each other, which could scratch either the printed tops or the readable bottoms of the discs. Even though it is on the underside, some manufacturers are unable to print over the stacking ring area due to a small "trough" created on the top surface when they mold their discs. Other manufacturers mold compact discs that are smooth on the top and have no problem printing over the stacking ring area.

Hub
This is the innermost portion of the disc, made of clear plastic, and includes the stacking ring. Printing over the hub area is similar to the effect of printing on transparency media. The lighter the color, the more the transparency effect is present, due to the small, widely spaced print dots that are used to produce light colors. With heavy ink coverage over the hub, the transparency is far less noticeable. However, all colors will appear different when printed over the clear plastic hub as compared to the other opaque surfaces of the compact disc.

Digital Versatile Disk

digital versatile disc or digital video disc (DVD), a small plastic disc used for the storage of digital data. The successor media to the compact disc (CD), a DVD can have more than 100 times the storage capacity of a CD. When compared to CD technology, DVD also allows for better graphics and greater resolution. In the case of an audio recording, where the data to be stored is in analog rather than digital form, the sound signal is sampled at a rate of 48,000 or 96,000 times a second, then each sample is measured and digitally encoded on the 43/4-in. (12-cm) disc as a series of microscopic pits on an otherwise polished surface. The disc is covered with a protective, transparent coating so that it can be read by a laser beam. As with other optical disks nothing touches the encoded portion, and the DVD is not worn out by the playing process. Because DVD players are backward compatible to existing technologies, they can play CD and CD-ROM discs; however, CD players cannot play DVD and DVD-ROM discs.

DVD formats include DVD-Video (often simply called DVD), DVD-ROM, and DVD-Audio. DVD-Video discs hold digitized movies or video programs and are played using a DVD player hooked up to a standard television receiver. In a sense, DVD-Video players are the successors to the video casette recorders (VCRs) that play VHS tapes. DVD-ROM [ R ead O nly M emory] discs hold computer data and are read by a DVD-ROM drive hooked up to a computer. These disks can only be read—the disks are impressed with data at the factory but once written cannot be erased and rewritten with new data. DVD-ROM also includes recordable variations. DVD-R and DVD+R[ R ecordable] discs can be written to sequentially but only once. DVD-RAM [ R andom A ccess M emory], DVD-RW, and DVD+RW [ R e W ritable] discs can be written to thousands of times; they differ in their technical standards and, as a result, in the amount of information they can hold. Dual layer disks, such as DVD-R DL, record data on two different layers within the disk. Many DVD recorders can record in several different recordable DVD formats. Some recorders include computer hard drives that allow the user to record tens to hundreds of hours of material temporarily; the user can then select the material that will be transferred to a DVD. When DVD was released in 1996 there was no DVD-Audio format, although the audio capabilities of DVD-Video far surpassed those available from a CD; the DVD-Audio format was introduced in 1999.

Blu-ray Disk

Blu-ray Disc (BD) is an optical disc storage medium designed to supersede the DVD format. The plastic disc is 120 mm in diameter and 1.2 mm thick, the same size as DVD sand CDs. Conventional (pre-BD-XL) Blu-ray Discs contain 25 GB per layer, with dual layer discs (50 GB) being the industry standard for feature-length video discs. Triple layer discs (100 GB) and quadruple layers (150 GB) are available for BD-XL re-writer drives. The name Blu-ray Disc refers to the blue laser used to read the disc, which allows information to be stored at a greater density than is possible with the longer-wavelength red laser used for DVDs. The major application of Blu-ray Discs is as a medium for video material such as feature films. Besides the hardware specifications, Blu-ray Disc is associated with a set of multimedia formats. Generally, these formats allow for the video and audio to be stored with greater definition than on DVD.

The format was developed by the Blu-ray Disc Association, a group representing makers of consumer electronics, computer hardware, and motion pictures. The first Blu-ray Disc prototypes were unveiled in October 2000, and the first prototype player was released in April 2003 in Japan. Afterwards, it continued to be developed until its official release in June 2006. As of June 2011, more than 2,500 Blu-ray Disc titles were available in Australia and the United Kingdom, with 3,500 in the United States and Canada. In Japan, as of July 2010, more than 3,300 titles have been released.

During the high definition optical disc format war, Blu-ray Disc competed with the HD DVD format. Toshiba, the main company that supported HD DVD, conceded in February 2008, releasing its own Blu-ray Disc player in late 2009.

IX. CMOS Manipulation

A new type of microfluidic system for biological cell manipulation, a CMOS/microfluidic hybrid,

is demonstrated. The hybrid system starts with a custom-designed CMOS (complementary metaloxide semiconductor) chip fabricated in a semiconductor foundry using standard integration circuit

technology. A microfluidic channel is post-fabricated on top of the CMOS chip to provide

biocompatible environment. The motion of individual biological cells that are tagged with

magnetic beads is directly controlled by the CMOS chip that generates localized magnetic field

patterns using an on-chip array of micro-electromagnets. The speed and the programmability of the

CMOS chip further allow for the dynamic reconfiguration of the magnetic fields, substantially

increasing the manipulation capability of the hybrid system. The concept of a hybrid system is

verified by simultaneously manipulating individual biological cells with microscopic resolution. A

new operation protocol that exploits the fast speed of electronics to trap and move a large number

of cells with less power consumption is also demonstrated. Combining the advantages of

microelectronics and microfluidics, the CMOS/microfluidic hybrid approach presents a new model

for a multifunctional lab-on-a-chip for biological and biomedical applications.

X. Beep Codes and Error Messages

Q: What are the BIOS beep codes and error messages for the Gateway 9315 Server?

A: During POST, the BIOS indicates the current testing phase by writing a hex code to I/O location 80h. If errors are encountered, either error beep codes or error messages are produced.

§  If an error occurs prior to video initialization, it is reported through a series of audio beep codes.

§  If an error occurs after video initialization, the error is displayed on the video screen.

Refer to the following tables for more information on BIOS error beep codes and error messages.

BIOS generated POST error beep codes (prior to video initialization)

POST error messages (after video initialization)









In the following table, the response section is divided into three types:
• Warning: The message is displayed on the screen and the error is logged to the SEL. The system continues booting with a degraded state.
• Pause: The message is displayed on the screen and the boot process is paused until the appropriate input is given to either continue the boot process or to take corrective action.
• Halt: The message is displayed on the screen, an error is logged to the SEL, and the system cannot boot unless the error is corrected.

XI. Network Cabling

Patch Cables

 A patch cable connects two network devices. Patch cables are typically CAT5 / CAT5e Ethernet cables linking a computer to a nearby network hub, switch or router.

Ethernet Crossover Cables

A crossover cable directly connects two network devices of the same type to each other over Ethernet. Ethernet crossover cables are commonly used when temporarily networking two devices in situations where a network router, switch or hub is not present.

Null Modem Cable

A null modem cable connects to two standard serial ports for networking two computers together. Null modem cables enable direct data transfer with a minimum of setup required.

Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cables carry communication signals using pulses of light. While expensive, these cables are increasingly being used instead of traditional copper cables, because fiber offers more capacity and is less susceptible to electrical interference. So-called Fiber to the Home (FTTH) installations are becoming more common as a way to bring ultra high speed Internet service (100 Mbps and higher) to residences.

What Are T1 Lines and T3 Lines?

T1 and T3 are two common types of leased lines used in telecommunications. Both T1 lines and T3 lines are reserved circuits that operate over either copper or fiber optic cables.

Network Cable and Connection Technologies Practice Exam

The interactive test presents questions and answers on common cabling technologies for home networks

Leased Line

A leased line is a cable connecting two specific locations for voice and/or data network service. Leased lines most commonly are rented by businesses to connect branch offices.

RS-232 Pinouts

These pinout diagrams illustrate the 9-pin and 25-pin serial line RS-232 standard network cables.

AWG- American Wire Gage

This reference table for the AWG specification lists wire diameters in millimeters and inches for wire gages 10 through 36.

Wire Gage Calculator

Convert between gage numbers and wire sizes in inches. Uses AWG or any of the other major wire gage standards

Cable Testing Help

Many products and techniques exist for testing and techniques exist for testing network cables to ensure they meet specifications for speed and quality. Learn about the engineering principles behind network cable testing explained clearly with diagrams.

66 Blocks - Punch Down Blocks

The "66 punch down block" still serves a purpose on a few types of networks, but they have become something of a historical curiousity now.

XII. Computer Networking

A computer network, or simply a network, is a collection of computers and network hardware interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information. When a process in one device is able to exchange information with a process in another device, the two devices are said to be networked. A network is a group of devices connected to each other. Networks may be classified by the following characteristics: the media used to transmit signals, the communications protocols used to organize network traffic, network scale, network topology, benefits, and organizational scope.
Communication protocols define the rules and data formats for exchanging information in a computer network. Well-known communications protocols include Ethernet, a hardware and link layer standard that is widely used for local area networks, and the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP), which defines a set of protocols for communication between multiple networks, for host-to-host data transfer, and for application-specific data transmission formats. Protocols provide the basis for network programming.
Computer networking can be considered a branch of electrical engineering, telecommunications, computer science,information technology or computer engineering, since it relies upon the theoretical and practical application of the related disciplines.

XIII. Network Topology

Network topology is the arrangement of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a computeror biological network. Essentially, it is the topological structure of a network, and may be depicted physically or logically. Physical topology refers to the placement of the network's various components, including device location and cable installation, while logical topology shows how data flows within a network, regardless of its physical design. Distances between nodes, physical interconnections, transmission rates, and/or signal types may differ between two networks, yet their topologies may be identical.

A good example is a local area network (LAN): Any given node in the LAN has one or more physical links to other devices in the network; graphically mapping these links results in a geometric shape that can be used to describe the physical topology of the network. Conversely, mapping the data flow between the components determines the logical topology of the network.

XIV. Data/Resource Sharing

The Research Data and Resource Sharing Plan has always been listed in the NIH Parent R01 PA-07-070 as a required narrative – especially for biomedical research, though the language is such that if sharing is not appropriate/possible, it's not mandatory (the sharing -- not the file!). While lack of this narrative does not prompt errors at eCommons, OSP has come to our attention that this NIH initiative is being pointed out to review panels. While the plan may not affect the review score, it IS a factor at the funding stage! We don’t want our MIT applications passed up for the lack of attention to this item. So while prior MIT submissions may have been submitted without this plan, ERA team is noting all applications where this is not addressed by the PI in any NIH opportunity that notes this as a requirement. Please pass this information on you your PI- cut straight from NIH Parent R01: PA-07-070: Plan for Sharing Research Data The precise content of the data-sharing plan will vary, depending on the data being collected and how the investigator is planning to share the data. Applicants who are planning to share data may wish to describe briefly the expected schedule for data sharing, the format of the final dataset, the documentation to be provided, whether or not any analytic tools also will be provided, whether or not a data-sharing agreement will be required and, if so, a brief description of such an agreement (including the criteria for deciding who can receive the data and whether or not any conditions will be placed on their use), and the mode of data sharing (e.g., under their own auspices by mailing a disk or posting data on their institutional or personal Web site, through a data archive or enclave). Investigators choosing to share under their own auspices may wish to enter into a data-sharing agreement. References to data sharing may also be appropriate in other sections of the application. Applicants requesting more than $500,000 in direct costs in any year of the proposed research must include a plan for sharing research data in their application. The funding organization will be responsible for monitoring the data sharing policy The reasonableness of the data sharing plan or the rationale for not sharing research data may be assessed by the reviewers. However, reviewers will not factor the proposed data sharing plan into the determination of scientific merit or the priority score. Sharing Research Resources NIH policy expects that grant recipients make unique research resources readily available for research purposes to qualified individuals within the scientific community after publication (See the NIH Grants Policy . Investigators responding to this funding opportunity should include a sharing research resources plan addressing how unique research resources will be shared or explain why sharing is not possible. The adequacy of the resources sharing plan and any related data sharing plans will be considered by Program staff of the funding organization when making recommendations about funding applications.

XV.Latest Gadgets

Cloud gaming with OnLive Announcement of the launching – 22nd of September, in UK – brings OnLive officially in Europe! The event will take place at the Eurogamer Expo, in London, and it promised to reveal a package of over 100 new games for games devourers. Let’s take a short look of what does cloud gaming actually mean for OnLive: - Easy access from anywhere - Gamers can play from any device: PC, mac, TV or any tablet - Users don’t have to hold an up-to-date system configuration to play a “last generation game”, because their system is just an interface of the game. The game is actually played in real time, on the OnLive’s powerful servers, within its datacenters. It will be needed an OnLive system which adapts games to run on the TVs - There is access to free instant demo-games for you to play or for you to watch as others play, with the possibility of voice chat - No more game-downloading, no further need of disks or any other special hardware - Facebook integration. Broadband is a key-factor regarding video quality and the required speed is 2Mbps. The issue that came out in USA was also raised in UK – the delay. This is caused by lag and latency, which was officially recognized by the CEO of OnLive (Steve Perlman) to be 35-40ms, though in the US there were found played games at 200ms latency. If you want to play a game, you can just rent it for a short time, buy it for unlimited play time, or pay an amount of money for 3 days, 5 days or a month of game access. But if you can make it to the event, OnLive promised to give thousands of Game Systems to the participants for free.
	Windows Phone users – be prepared! The two old-PC-games which we all enjoyed and (still) love are now available on the Windows Phone 7 platform. The new editions of Minesweeper and Sudoku have now great improvements, a 21st century UI design and both are multi-leveled and multi-mode: Minesweeper has Classic and Speed mode, and Sudoku – Classic and Lighting mode. You can play on different difficulty degrees and being time restricted. This way of playing only improves your skills as it shows you the specific place you hold in the community rank, so be persistent to reach the top! You can also change the background of the games with any picture you like, as it is customizable. The two puzzle-games are integrated with Xbox Live and, most important, ad-supported and downloadable for free! Yet, they are released only for the US market

	Last month GoldVish has added a new masterpiece in its portfolio – the new phone Equilibrium is the latest luxurious creation of theSwiss company. The company addresses Equilibrium to successful business men / women and gives them the possibility to combine harmonious work and home – this being the main focus of this phone. Thereby it comes with two SIM slots, and it also has the possibility to maintain one of the SIM allocated to the home-area, while traveling in other countries. Regarding technical data, let’s mention: - 8GB memory - 2.4” display, 240×320 pixels - Camera, Bluetooth, Stereo FM - 20 days stand-by time - 7 hours talk time Regarding extravagance, GoldVish suprises us again with: - Used material: Titanium, Stainless Steel, space grade Aluminum or Leather - Scratch resistance: fulfilled by natural Sapphire - 18K Platinum or Gold accents - Charming phone colors: pink, grey, brown, black or blue This exclusivist phone has a spice price, as expected, the range being between 6900€ and 110000€ and it is available worldwide.
	iPad’s native Skype application delayed Almost two months ago we were promised the release of the native Skype application for the iPad. Well, it was a success… almost! The Skype app was released today but, after a very short time, it was removed – the explanation was that its release was “premature”. Yet, we have been assured that the removal would be temporary. Even if the application was quickly removed, user had enough time to try it and give feedback. So, here it is: - The application works over Wi-Fi and 3G and it also makes possible the chat during the video call - Conversations are clean from the audio point of view and video is smooth, with few freeze-frames - Of course, the main advantage for the conversation is the iPad’s big screen, which allow the conversations to be “seen” more clearly and very well defined - Among the person you have the video call with, you can also see yourself in the same window - You can use the iPad both in portrait or landscape mode - There is also a dial option of your Skype Online Number

	Mango – Windows Phone 7 from Microsoft Mango is the name of new Windows Phone 7 from Microsoft and it was released to the manufacturers for OS testing and compatibility. It will probably be available in a few weeks in Japan first (by Fujitsu), then lately by Nokia, Samsung, LG and HTC. Let’s sneak a bit in the phone and see – of course – what’s different? Microsoft is not bringing brand new revolutionary features on the market (at least not all of them…), but it makes them smarter and easier to access. To start with, the home screen – it is actually the Start Screen. So you can stay up to date with everything you want to know (depending on the applications that you are interested). For example: weather, friends’ social status, emails, calls, agenda or texts. Microsoft is launching the hub term in its Windows Phone 7. So it has: - People Hub: referring to friends, there is not just a list of contacts. Windows Phone 7 integrates a person’s Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn and Windows Live profiles and tells you right up to date everything that is new for each person in your list. - Similar to this is unification of the messaging inbox, which allows the user to easily see all the text he receives, but in a smart way, divided in personal (social network messages, personal email accounts and so on) and business (Outlook) - Pictures Hub: collects your entire taken photos (which you can shot even if the phone is locked!) and even your friends’ posted photos on the social networks. - Games Hub: besides playing whatever game you desire, you can create a gamer profile and go online through Xbox live to meet other gamers. Your scores will always be remembered! - Media Hubs: music and video collections, among PC wireless synchronization. - Office Hub: because it is the only phone with Office Mobile, Windows Phone 7 is detaching you from your PC: you can reach all you need: from Word, Excel and PowerPoint to OneNote and SharePoint. - Marketplace Hub One of the breakthroughs is the built in Bing, which helps the user with maps and search. The search actually does the work for you: - It can scan a bar code and find any related thing you would want to know about that particular item: where does it come from, where can you find it, what does it contains, what is the price, reviews, etc. - It can locate you and suggest to you: nearest places to visit, or nearest restaurants, shopping center, trains, locations – it is a life saver! As a browser it uses IE9, it runs instantaneously and it is multitasking. Last but not least, it has the smart possibility to Find Phone – if you lose your phone, you can remotely write a massage on it, locate it, lock it or erase thing
	Sony CyberShot TX55 – thinnest camera ever Everybody is counting down the days until September, when the thinnest camera , CyberShot TX55 , we have ever seen will be launched! Sony CyberShot TX55 is smashing the market having only 12.2mm (this is a bit thicker than a pencil!). But when it comes to resolution,zoom quality and keeping performance – the size is not an issue. Sony is using brand new technologies to fulfill our expectations: - By Pixel Super Resolution: the 5X optical zoom range is doubled with this innovating technology, so it can reach 10X optical zoom without any quality or sharp loose . - Picture Effect: it eliminates the use of other photo-editing programs on taken pictures, as it allows everybody to express his / hers artistic ideas using the built in camera’s effects. Features: - Image stabilizer for shooting even while walking (so it corrects possible vertical or horizontal handshakes) - 3D pictures - Detailed 42.9 MP 3D panorama shooting ability - Large touchscreen display of 3.3” - High Resolution images of 16.2 MP - 1080i AVCHD video, 60 fps, full HD function - Flash memory and card slot compatible with M2 and micro SD / SDHC (up to 16 GB for ideal media) – the cards offered by Sony have free downloadable PC software - You can take a 12 MP picture while recording, without interrupting your full HD video - Styled new look, four colors available: black, silver, red and purple. The rumored price is 350$, but it’s worth every penny if the camera performs as it is told

	After almost 5 years of the first Nintendo Wii release, it was about time for Nintendo to come out with a drop-dead new console! The 2nd Wii generation was announced at this year’s Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3) edition, it is to be released next spring and the name will beNintendo Wii U. Because of early 2012 release, Nintendo is gaining Sony and Microsoft, as these two announced new generations launching in 2014. First of all, Wii U is fully compatible with the previous generation’s versions, so you can still play Wii games and use Wii kits – this is great! There will be a console – a controller screen, not only a controller: - a 6.2” touchscreen tablet that allows the user to control motion (velocity and orientation) - front-facing built-in camera, microphone and 3 menu buttons are included - fully HD, 1080p - HDMI onboard - support for 3D games – but it seems it will not be the main focus - wireless 802.11n Wi-Fi expected The included camera allows you to make video calls or take photos – and then easily switch them on your TV for an even comfortable slideshow. Wii U has resolved this issue! It comes with a new game experience which gives you the possibility to free your TV screen for someone who wants to watch TV and continue playing on your Wii U screen in an instant, almost immediately. But Nintendo did not stop here! The new Wii U gives you the possibility to use both TV and the touchscreen tablet while playing games! There is nothing mentioned about the price yet, but having into consideration the new controller, it is expected to be a bit higher. And because Nintendo has something for everyone, core gamers have nothing to worry about – Wii U’s next generation console promises to be friendlier to them.
A	iPhone 5 will be released in September The latest rumors say that iPhone 5 will be released this fall, in September, maybe October. The rumors multiplied after the appearance of the latest iOS’ beta versions last week. The 3rd beta version of iOS 5 has been revealed, so it becomes a fact that we are closer to the 5th iPhone generation. Apple is again revolutionizing with the new iOS 5, with one of its new feature – “Assistive touch”. It seems that iPhones, iPads and iPods will no longer need any button with this improvement. “Assistive touch” is actually a menu that helps the user jump off the button pressing and, with just one finger tap, you can: - rotate the screen - lock the screen - adjust volume - go back to home menu - open the multitasking bar - simulate the shake of the device - do custom movements and save them into different gestures for further fast utilization - arrange the icons wherever you want on the screen. A latest detail has to be mentioned – the brand new and free iCloud, which will come along with the new iOS5. It will have a storage capacity of 5GB (or more, if bought) and it will load / sync / share on other devices wirelessly: photos, music, documents, contacts, agenda – it goes PC-free! You will be also able to do back-ups and restores, media streaming or just use it for storage. Browsing is again renewed with offering the possibility to read your daily newspaper or magazines just like if you were in a newspaper store. Emailing has an integrated dictionary, and – for the iPad – the keyboard splits, for an easier writing. As the iPhone5 has already reached AT&T (telecommunication service leader) for testing, it means it’s just a matter of time until we can benefit of all the wonderful innovations that Apple prepares for us!

	Nokia launched in Singapore this month it’s latest smartphone,  although the company promises another phone to be on the market until the end of 2011. What is different from the other smartphones? The Nokia N9 features a uni-body design, it has a 3.9” AMOLED display – there are no buttons, the phones body is made from polycarbonate material, the glass is curved, the colors are powerful and intense and it is the best we have seen so far from Nokia. I am sure you are asking why the Nokia N9’s glass is curved. Nokia said the new glass shape allows applications to appear clean and bright and it is very easy to use. Just swipe your finger across the screen and you are at the home view. The phone comes with an 8MP Carl Zeiss camera with touch to focus, free navigation, free maps and fast browsing, as it is using latest mobile browser technology. The phones colors please everybody – black, cyan and magenta. Nokia N9 Detailed Specifications: Operating System: MeeGo 1.2 Harmattan Processor: ARM Cortex A8, 1 Ghz. Screen: 3.9 inch AMOLED Camera: 8 MP Carl Zeiss Memory: 16 and 64 GB Body material: Polycarbonate Available Colors: Black, magenta and cyan The price starts from 660 $ / 749 $ (for 16GB / 64GB version). It seems that Nokia is gaining and wants to overcome the “touch revolution”that Apple created.
	March 27th, NYC, Union Square – hundreds of persons throwing away their 3D glasses. The new Nintendo 3DS is launched. It’s the moment the entire world expected: improved 3D graphics which incorporates you right in the middle of the games you play, with no further need of the red-blue glasses. The breakthrough is the stereoscopic 3D screen on the top of the device, which makes you “see“ how space (2D) extends in depth (3rd D).  This feature is full controllable, as the producer attached a 2D-to-3D button, with which the player can adjust the 3D effect. The second display is a touchscreen with million brilliant colors and it has 3 intuitive buttons for easily menu navigation while playing 3D games.  You can also browse the internet, download 3D videos, 3D movies or music. Another new feature is the Analogic Control – Circle Pad, a 360-degree analog input. The 3D effect is improved with the three added cameras: 1. One is inner facing and enables you to insert your own photos in games 2. Two are out facing 3DS cameras, which you can use for shooting real 3D pictures. For a complete 3D experience, Nintendo added motion and gyroscopic sensors, so movement is transposed in game. For 250$ you can have the Aqua Blue or Cosmo Black version, so Nintendo players – prepare for the real 3D! XVI.Reference http://www.scribd.com/doc/17599154/Parts-of-Motherboard http://pchardtech.blogspot.com/2010/03/parts-of-hard-disk.html http://www.ehow.com/list_5954327_parts-floppy-drive-_amp_-functions.html http://www.ehow.com/list_6177748_parts-usb-flash-drive.html http://desktoppub.about.com/od/cddvd/a/fritz_cddesign.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blu-ray_Disc http://support.gateway.com/s/servers/compo/motherbd/wme859199/wme859199faq2.shtml http://compnetworking.about.com/od/networkcables/f/t1_t3_lines.html http://compnetworking.about.com/od/networkcables/g/bldef_crossover.html http://compnetworking.about.com/od/networkcables/g/bldefnullmodem.html http://compnetworking.about.com/od/networkcables/f/t1_t3_lines.html http://compnetworking.about.com/od/networkcables/g/fiberopticcable.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_topology http://osp.mit.edu/coeus/help/faqs/how-do-i-include-the-dataresource-sharing-plan-in-nih-r01-pa-07-070 http://www.latest-gadgets.info/